In the continental United States, only three species of mangrove grow: red, black, and white mangroves. Decomposers play a critical role in the flow of energy through an ecosystem. In 2006, two nearby archipelagos were washed away, an illustration that the threat of the entire forest vanishing beneath the ocean is a real concern. >> Our goal is to make science relevant and fun for everyone. /XObject << The scientists make use of the extensive collections at the National Museum of Natural History as well as the facilities at several Smithsonian facilitiesoutside of Washington, D.C.including the Smithsonian Environmental Research Center in Maryland, and the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute in Panama, and field stations along the Atlantic and Caribbean coasts in Florida, Belize, and Panama. These mangrove forests are not just stands of trees - they are entire ecosystems, complete with producers, consumers and tons of decomposers. Without the consumer, the accumulation of dead . the mangrove tree crab). /Length 3685 >> /Type /Page What threats do they faceand how can we conserve them? Without them, dead plants and animals would keep piling up with the nutrients the soil needs trapped inside. << /Encoding /WinAnsiEncoding >> These ecosystems sustain billions of worms, protozoa, barnacles ( Balanus spp. << /Length 593 . /Macrosheet /Part /A << Then, they constructed a slight slope leading down into the ocean so that tides could easily flow. << /Type /Group /Encoding /WinAnsiEncoding /Group << >> In 1986, Robin Lewis began a restoration experiment in Florida that changed mangrove restoration success. These unique tigers take to both land and sea, incorporating fish, frogs and lizards in their diet. 9 [126 0 R 127 0 R 128 0 R 129 0 R] 100 0 R 101 0 R 102 0 R 103 0 R 104 0 R 105 0 R 106 0 R 107 0 R 108 0 R 109 0 R Due to deforestation, they are, Dive underwater in the surprisingly clear waters that typify many mangrove forests, and a, suddenly take on the textures and hues of the multitude of marine organisms clinging to its bark. Mangrove biologistDr. Candy Feller has spent the last 35 years among the mangrove roots researching the relationship between mangrove growth, nutrients, and the animals that rely on the forests. /Group << are attacked by tigers, however, attacks often go unreported so the true number may be higher. >> Eventually, the leaves age and fall off the tree, taking the salt with them. After the shrimp reach maturitya time that takes between three to six monthsthe ponds are drained so the shrimp can be harvested, and toxic water that contains the shrimps waste, uneaten shrimp feed, pesticides, chemicals, and antibiotics is released into the surrounding environment where it can harm local ecosystems. /Header /Sect >> >> This low diversity means that mangroves of a single species are so similar that the genetic makeup of one individual is almost identical to its neighbor. Dwarf, or scrub, mangrove forests only attain canopy heights of less than 5 feet (1.5 meters) although they contain the same species as the other types of forest. For swimming species, not only are the roots a great place for ample food, they are also a great hideout to avoid predators. /CropBox [0 0 612 792] People who live in mangrove forests often rely on fishing to make a living. Mangrove forests save lives. In Central and South America, Rhizophora species are often the closest to the flooding tides and rely on branching prop roots, also known as stilt roots, for both stability and access to oxygen. However, most mangroves do better in ranges between 3 and 27 ppt. /Length 1009 This process helps provide organic nutrients for the ecosystem where it lives. /Diagram /Figure >> /Font << 210 0 R 211 0 R 212 0 R 213 0 R 214 0 R 215 0 R 216 0 R 217 0 R] Microbes, being an important component of the mangrove environment, not only play a very critical role in creating and maintaining this biosphere but also serve as a source of biotechnologically valuable and important products. /F3 29 0 R The whole food chain passes energy to the plant eaters, or herbivores. In species from the genera Rhizophora (the red mangrove) and Bruguiera, the plants create a barrier and can almost completely exclude the salt from entering their vascular systemover 90 percent of the salt from seawater is excluded. /S /URI 5 0 obj /ModDate (D:20171107163810Z) endstream >> One study lists global mangrove carbon storage at 75 billion pounds (34 million metric tons) of carbon per year. They capture sunlight from the sun and use it as "food" Give an example of a decomposer. In the 1950s, coastal villages in the Indo-Pacific had an average of 5 miles of mangrove forest between themselves and the ocean. /A << While producers tend to get a lot of credit for propping up ecosystems, mangrove forests wouldnt be able to operate without decomposers. They grow mangrove seedlings in greenhouses and then transplant them into mudflats along the oceans edge. At a global scale, there are several groups that have committed to helping both restore and conserve the worlds mangrove forests. /GS7 46 0 R They are characterized by halophytic (salt loving) trees, shrubs and other plants growing in brackish to saline tidal waters. /StructParents 8 >> Mangroves have not recovered from this event, as indicated by a very low levels of genetic variability. Describe the difference between decomposers and consumers in an ecosystem? They are located on the intermediate zone between the land . /Font << /CropBox [0 0 612 792] The primary consumers of mangroves are usually the decomposers (e.g. /GS8 47 0 R 6 [111 0 R 112 0 R 113 0 R 114 0 R 115 0 R 116 0 R] 130 0 R 131 0 R 132 0 R 133 0 R 134 0 R 135 0 R 136 0 R 137 0 R 138 0 R 139 0 R /Resources << But without alternative means to make a living, year after year the honey hunters return to the forest. Red mangrove leaves are decomposed in shallow water in south Florida mangrove forests. /Type /Group /Tabs /S endobj /GS8 222 0 R >> /Resources << Decomposers. Depending upon the species, propagules will float for a number of days before becoming waterlogged and sinking to the muddy bottom, where they lodge in the soil. >> The roots even hold onto those sediments which leads to better water quality and a reduction in erosion. /S /Transparency /CropBox [0 0 612 792] /CS /DeviceRGB Mangrove can also be used as a term that refers to an entire community. /CS /DeviceRGB /CS /DeviceRGB /F1 48 0 R /ProcSet [/PDF /Text /ImageB /ImageC /ImageI] A stealthy predator,it is considered the. They flaunt the enlarged claw to not only attract females but to intimidate male rivals. A stealthy predator,it is considered the worlds most aggressive crocodile and often kills people who wonder where it lives. >> endobj Mud lobsters excavate underground burrows that extend down to two meters deep. /Type /Group /Resources << Mangrove forests are excellent at absorbing and storing carbon from the atmosphere. In 1986, Robin Lewis began a restoration experiment in Florida that changed mangrove restoration success. /StructParents 14 /A << Dr. Feller spends much of her time perched in mangrove trees or sitting among their gnarled thicketscounting, measuring, weighing, photographing and comparing the leaves and animals she finds. endobj endobj << Aratus dines on leaves, insects, and other species of crabs, including juveniles of its own species, in the trees. /Tabs /S push salt from the ocean water out through special pores or salt glands within their leaves. /Pages 3 0 R /Font << >> Mangroves make up less than 2 percent of marine environments but account for 10 to 15 percent of carbon burial. Many crabs, shrimp, and fish will spend the early stages of life within the safety of the mangrove roots before making their way out into the open ocean as adults. (Steven Paton/Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute), The burrowing mud lobsters are industrious workers that play an important role in many mangrove forests in the Indo-Pacific Region. , rice and palm oil farming, and industrial activityare rapidly replacing these salt-tolerant trees and the ecosystems they support. And, as scientists are discovering, mangrove swamps are extremely important to our own well-being and to the health of the planet. >> /F5 52 0 R /Tabs /S /F5 52 0 R >> /StructParents 13 In 2016, the United States imported over 1.3 billion pounds of shrimp, and it is estimated that Americans consume 4 pounds of shrimp per person every year. In places where freshwater streams meet the salty ocean, there are masses of trees called mangroves wading into the water. /Parent 3 0 R /Resources << 10 [130 0 R 131 0 R 132 0 R 133 0 R 134 0 R] Ecosystem Maintenance Decomposers are like the housekeepers of an ecosystem. 90 0 R 91 0 R 92 0 R 93 0 R 94 0 R 95 0 R 96 0 R 97 0 R 98 0 R 99 0 R So, the energy that enters an ecosystem as sunlight eventually flows out of the ecosystem in the form of heat. 2 [86 0 R 87 0 R 88 0 R 89 0 R 90 0 R 91 0 R 92 0 R] But, take away the super cold freezes and the young mangroves are able to survive the winter. /F3 50 0 R IKH -vv8Xp~X~*64Pb?zU8J:*80z9pZ! daa%c!\mY$nA~G#*Bj i~U_S/uB}koN|{(ctJ@)Vq`-%0`iBx~$+c Herons, larger fish and even crocodiles can act as predators in this system. /F4 51 0 R Using their claws, they move the mud onto mounds aboveground, in some cases up to three meters tall. >> /Type /Page The Sundarban mangrove forest is home to the great Asian honey bee and collecting that bees honey may be one of the riskiest occupations in the world. Many kinds of birds nest, roost, and feed in mangroves. Initially toxic from the deep, acidic soil coming into contact with the air, the mounds eventually lose their acidity and become excellent places for little mangroves, including several species of the mangrove fern Acrostichum, to grow. ), and other invertebrates. endobj People attempt to restore mangroves all around the world. Honey can be a sweet luxury, but for many it is a way of life. >> << /C [0 0 1] /Border [0 0 0] /A << /GS7 46 0 R . The fish breathe by storing water in their mouth and gill chamber, and by keeping their skin damp they can also breathe air through their skin. And in Australia, the mangrove forests are renowned for the massive saltwater crocodile, a reptile that can reach up to 17 feet! /C [0 0 1] The pneumatophores of Sonneratia species can reach up to 10 feet (3 meters) in height, taller than a grown man. 32 0 obj /F4 51 0 R Plant-soil feedbacks in mangrove ecosystems are important for ecosystem resilience and can be investigated by establishing links between empirical and modelling studies. /CS /DeviceRGB /Subject (BSM-4109: Project Preparation WSC) /S /Transparency Despite the appeal of quick financial gain, shrimp farming has hidden, long-term costs. >> The mangrove forests from the tip of Florida to the Carribean are home to another marine reptile, the American crocodile, a species once endangered but now, thanks to conservation efforts, is listed as, on the IUCN red list. Sometimes they are inundated with fresh river water, while during summer droughts the soil can become exceptionally salty when the fresh river water is almost nonexistent. 2 0 obj /S /URI Red Mangrove (Rhizophera mangle) is easily recognized by its distinctive arching roots. >> Mudskippers are fish that spend the majority of their time out of water, and some can even use their powerful pectoral fins to climb trees. /GS8 47 0 R For most plants, the seeds remain dormant until after they are dispersed to a favorable environment. /URI (https://research.bangor.ac.uk/portal/en/researchoutputs/decomposition-as-a-regulator-of-carbon-accretion-in-mangroves-a-review\(89847308-f975-435f-acb0-b805d64dd52f\).html) /Subtype /Link /ExtGState << While most tiger species avoid humans, this tiger is notorious for actively hunting humans, a trait that has earned it the name man eater. Although for a time, fear of the creatures and the inaccessibility of their chosen habitat protected the tigers from human poaching, recent sea level rise is now threatening their existence. Underwater sponges, snails, worms, anemones, barnacles, and oysters are a few animals that cling to the hard surface of the roots. 31 0 obj decomposition, mangroves and other vegetated coastal ecosystems represent an important global carbon sink (Donato et al., 2011; Yuan et al., 2015). /C [0 0 1] /ProcSet [/PDF /Text /ImageB /ImageC /ImageI] Fortunately, one method for mangrove restoration proves to be more successful than other attempts. Its estimated that 75 percent to 90 percent of fisheries on the Florida coast are supported by mangroves. /F4 51 0 R In Florida, conservationists are currently trying to contain an infestation of an Asian mangrove species, Lumnitzera racemose, that spread from a renowned botanical garden in Miami. Two young women display their fish catch at a market in Indonesia. /S /URI /F5 52 0 R And in the Gulf of California in Mexico, mangroves provide habitat for about 32 percent of the local fishery landings, an equivalent of 15,000 dollars per acre. In the Philippines, for instance, the World Bank spent $35 million to plant nearly 3 million mangrove seedlings in the Central Visayas between 1984 and 1992. Official websites use .gov >> Decomposers include bacteria and fungi. Sometimes the crabs chase male competitors all the way back to their burrows. Frogs cling to bark and leaves. /F3 50 0 R << For many mangroves, however, the salt is dealt with after it enters the plant. (Graphic created by Ashley Gallagher. All of these components are substances . The mudskippers breathing strategies are so efficient that some species can survive out of water for up to 36 hours in high humidity. Products from mangroves are also used in soaps, cosmetics, perfumes, and insecticides. Bacteria and protozoans colonize plant litter and begin breaking it down chemically into organic compounds, minerals, CO2, and nitrogenous wastes. In Florida, conservationists are currently trying to contain, an infestation of an Asian mangrove species. >> One acre of mangrove forest can store about 1,450 pounds of carbon per year (163 g carbon per square meter per year)roughly the same amount emitted by a car driving straight across the United States and back (5,875 miles). /F3 50 0 R /CropBox [0 0 612 792] LS2.B Cycles of Matter and Energy Transfer in Ecosystems: Food webs are models that demonstrate how matter and energy is transferred between producers, consumers, and decomposers as the three groups interact within an ecosystem. /F4 51 0 R stream /Filter /FlateDecode 13 0 obj /Tabs /S >> 190 0 R 191 0 R 192 0 R 193 0 R 194 0 R 195 0 R 196 0 R 197 0 R 198 0 R 199 0 R >> << /Rotate 0 How do they do it? >> >> << /StructParents 1 Brown pelicans (Pelecanus occidentalis) nest in a mangrove in Ecuadors Galapagos Islands. /C [0 0 1] /P 4 0 R But by 1996,less than 20 percent of those mangroves had survived. Throughout the night the bats will travel tree to tree and the pollen is transferred to flowers of different individuals. endobj Initially, governments were ill-equipped to regulate this type of farming, and farmers were unaware of the destruction they were causing. HTMo@#\EQ$U["U `mZw6 As such, mangroves are receiving growing attention in the climate change debate in relation to their capacity for so-called "blue carbon" sequestration. /GS8 47 0 R Periophthalmus is a particularly amphibious genus that breathes predominantly through its skin. The adult males congregate on mangrove leaves where they display synchronous, flashing light sequences to attract females. >> When cyclonic storms like typhoons and hurricanes make landfall, they create a strong storm surge that can cause serious flooding. uuid:841c3460-6260-4287-b186-596bb86c75ec These wetlands are often found in estuaries, where fresh water meets salt water and are infamous for their impenetrable maze of woody vegetation. 10 0 obj >> /Rotate 0 With only about 80 species of true mangrove trees worldwide, mangrove ecosystems comprise a relatively low number of habitat-forming tree species, but a high diversity of decomposer, detritivorous and consumer species. But by 1996, less than 20 percent of those mangroves had survived. Thats a rate of loss that far exceeds the disappearance of tropical rainforests. >> Grades 5 - 8 Subjects Biology, Ecology, Conservation Image Millipede Detritivore /F1 27 0 R endobj These organisms in turn feed fish and shrimp, which support wading birds, pelicans, and the endangered Crocodile. /Parent 3 0 R endobj Xg'j0]`|(vV(8np [Qr522Iq%vssaH!t`M>q)"Ni`.84Rx=C4 W2c2> /CropBox [0 0 612 792] Iron, phosphorus, and sulfur dynamics are closely coupled to the activity of sulfate-reducing bacteria, the primary decomposers in anoxic soils of mangrove ecosystems. /StructParents 5 And in Hawaii. /ExtGState << Mangroves and fish populations are so intertwined that the loss of one square mile of forest will cause a loss of about 275,000 pounds (124 metric tons) of fish per year, the same weight as a small blue whale. The same study also found that as mangrove width decreased, the death toll from coastal storms increased. Also, disease is a constant concern and can render entire ponds completely worthless. >> Degradasi dan perubahan penggunaan kawasan. /ProcSet [/PDF /Text /ImageB /ImageC /ImageI] /F2 224 0 R /Subtype /Link /GS7 46 0 R This buried carbon is known as blue carbon because it is stored underwater in coastal ecosystems like mangrove forests, seagrass beds and salt marshes. /F1 48 0 R endobj A mangrove is a woody tree or shrub that lives along sheltered coastlines within the tropic or subtropic latitudes. /MediaBox [0 0 612 792] /GS8 47 0 R Products from mangroves are also used in soaps, cosmetics, perfumes, and insecticides. 14 0 obj >> After mangrove flowers are pollinated the plants produce seeds that immediately begin to germinate into seedlings. /Type /Group /ProcSet [/PDF /Text /ImageB /ImageC /ImageI] /Group << crcst test prep; crcst free test questions; paid test; crcst exam prep notes; subscribe Mangroves categorized as secretors, including species in the black mangrove genus. In the Philippines, for instance, the World Bank spent $35 million to plant nearly 3 million mangrove seedlings in the Central Visayas between 1984 and 1992. 11 [135 0 R 136 0 R 137 0 R 138 0 R 139 0 R 140 0 R 141 0 R 142 0 R 143 0 R 144 0 R /S /Transparency /F1 48 0 R /CropBox [0 0 612 792] endobj >> << /Rotate 0 Black Mangrove (Avicennia sp. In males, one claw is noticeably bigger than the other. The devastating tsunami of 2004 was a wakeup call for many countries that were impacted by the waves surge and had exposed coastlines from mangrove removal. /Parent 3 0 R >> /Type /Metadata endobj /Rotate 0 Thats a rate of loss that far exceeds the disappearance of tropical rainforests. , that spread from a renowned botanical garden in Miami. 24 0 obj /ExtGState << >> >> Mangroves themselves can also be invasive. - American Museum of Natural History, Indian Lagoon Mangrove Species - Smithsonian Marine Station at Fort Pierce, Mangrove Shrubs and Trees - Food and Agriculture Organization, The Mangrove Knowledge Hub - Global Mangrove Alliance, News ArticlesWhat Killed NorthernAustralia's Mangroves? /Type /Page A satellite imageof the Sundarbans Forest. /F5 52 0 R Areas of the Sundarban mangrove forest have experienced unusually high tides and as a result high levels of erosion. endobj /Resources << >> This slug caterpillar turns into a very plain brown moth with stinging spines. /Type /Page /Border [0 0 0] /GS7 221 0 R /Subtype /Type1 Pneumatophores are specialized roots that act like snorkels when partially flooded and have pores called lenticels that cover their surface where oxygen exchange occurs. /ProcSet [/PDF /Text /ImageB /ImageC /ImageI] /ExtGState << /Font << /Lang (en-GB) They grow mangrove seedlings in greenhouses and then transplant them into mudflats along the oceans edge. /S /Transparency /MediaBox [0 0 612 792] Scientists will refer to this as the mangal, but mangrove or mangrove forest works just the same. Mangroves form dense barriers against storms and tsunamis,saving livesand protecting property. /Parent 3 0 R White Mangroves (Laguncularia racemosa) often grow even farther inland with no outstanding root structures. >> This shrimp farm in southern Belize is just one example of how mangroves worldwide are giving way to human development. /F4 51 0 R /Group << If one or more of those nutrients disappears, the producers, and by extension the whole ecosystem, is in trouble. endobj >> /Type /XObject 4 0 obj 16 0 obj Women removing the shell from mangrove mudshells in Malaita, Solomon Islands. Now, they have been observed as far north as Georgia where they are being found in temperate, saltmarshes of northern latitudes. 120 0 R 121 0 R 122 0 R 123 0 R 124 0 R 125 0 R 126 0 R 127 0 R 128 0 R 129 0 R << In the mangrove forests of the Ganges Delta in the Sundarban forest of India and Bangladesh, roughly 500 tigers call the intertidal home. >> /CropBox [0 0 612 792] /C [0 0 1] /Subtype /Link As the leaves age, the cells grow in size since more water is needed to dilute the accumulating salt. Many people bear scars from tiger encounters. /Font << The bacteria in mangroves are very important, acting as decomposers and breaking down organic matter making it is available to the food web. /Type /Group 33 0 obj >> /Border [0 0 0] Images from Diana Kleine,Tracey Saxby, and Sally Bell, Integration and Application Network, University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science, ian.umces.edu/imagelibrary/.). /CS /DeviceRGB ), and other invertebrates. /ExtGState << ?:sr69swAh6_Ieh}N^M4'TL&*?,p9V,M 3?HZ^EbST Mangrove ecosystems are widely regarded as highly productive, and the high ability of mangroves to store carbon is currently receiving much attention in the context of climate change. In the canopy, ants, spiders, moths, termites, and scorpions feed and nest in hollowed twigs. /Type /Page A plot of land recently seeded with young mangroves. /F6 54 0 R >> /Textbox /Sect An exotic antelope from Asia called the nilgai was released in Texas in the United States in the 1930s as hunting game and is now not only a nuisance for cattle ranchers, but it also eats mangrove leaves. They protect the climate by absorbing carbon dioxide and reducing the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. /CropBox [0 0 612 792] Knee roots are a type of horizontal root that periodically grow vertically and then, in a near hairpin loop, grow back downsimilar to the look of a bent knee. 140 0 R 141 0 R 142 0 R 143 0 R 144 0 R 145 0 R 146 0 R 147 0 R 148 0 R 149 0 R endobj The roots undulate away from the trunk in curving S shapes. Other organisms rely on the structures created by the branching trees and their tangle of roots. Most pneumatophores, however, grow between 8 and 20 inches (20 and 50 cm). endobj When those predators die, it is then up to the decomposers to hit the reset button on the food chain by harvesting nutrients that were passed from the producers to the consumers so they can be used again. (Ilka C. Feller/Smithsonian Institution, made possible by LightHawk), . xiuF( 307-338. /F1 48 0 R A lone mangrove shoot stands in the path of development in the Bahamas. /F4 51 0 R /Contents 64 0 R /Rect [175.35 400 220.37 410] A stilt root grows toward the soil, arcing away from the central trunk like a flying buttress. /URI (https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2017.06.069) decomposer noun organism that breaks down dead organic material; also sometimes referred to as detritivores ecosystem noun community and interactions of living and nonliving things in an area. Between mangroves dropping their leaves in the water and fish dying, things can become a little messy. Initially toxic from the deep, acidic soil coming into contact with the air, the mounds eventually lose their acidity and become excellent places for little mangroves, including several species of the mangrove fern. >> 19 0 obj /F4 51 0 R Everglades noun vast swampy region flowing south of Lake Okeechobee in Florida. What threats do they faceand how can we conserve them? endobj /S /Transparency /S /Transparency 5 [107 0 R 108 0 R 109 0 R 110 0 R] Mud lobsters excavate underground burrows that extend down to two meters deep. Anchored in soft sediments, the roots are literally coated with creaturesbarnacles, oysters, crabs, sponges, anemones, sea stars, and much more. /Endnote /Note Monkeys, snakes and lizards crawl along tree limbs. /Tabs /S , as indicated by a very low levels of genetic variability. Because of their coastal location and the tangled nature of their roots, mangrove forests also help protect shorelines from erosion while giving many rare species places to live. The tree and shrub foliage create a rich habitat for other plants and animals to call home, and the branching root system underwater creates a safe haven for many fish, especially easily preyed upon young. Through a series of impressive adaptationsincluding a filtration system that keeps out much of the salt and a complex root system that holds the mangrove upright in the shifting sediments where land and water meet. Mangrove forests occurring at the interface of terrestrial and marine ecosystems represent a rich biological diversity of plants, animals and microorganisms. Patterns in the chemistry data suggested that sulfate reduction rates and storage of reduced sulfur were greater in the inland basin forest dominated by Laguncularia racemosa . Mangroves have. /Tabs /S /F3 50 0 R The underground portion of the root adds stability while the looping projections increase access to the air. Smithsonian scientists and colleagues from around the world are searching for answers to these and other urgent questions. z>?aY"{TV[$04`ViPdLBi[R ;{q{FcsY{|WQs4(IB[o$=XT| Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites. They stabilize shores by trapping sediments and building land. >> /F1 223 0 R /GS7 46 0 R The mangrove forests from the tip of Florida to the Carribean are home to another marine reptile, the American crocodile, a species once endangered but now, thanks to conservation efforts, is listed as vulnerable on the IUCN red list. Decomposers can obtain energy by digesting chemical compounds that consumers cannot digest How do producers obtain energy? Spatial distribution features of microorganisms and assessment of carbon sink capability in mangrove sediments Huirong YANG 1, 2 (), Chang FANG 1, 2 (), Junchao GAO 3, Fang JIAO 1, 2 1. >> /URI (https://research.bangor.ac.uk/portal/en/researchoutputs/decomposition-as-a-regulator-of-carbon-accretion-in-mangroves-a-review\(89847308-f975-435f-acb0-b805d64dd52f\).html) >> /Type /Group Organic carbon inputs2.1.. Mangrove ecosystem productivityThe most widely used proxy of mangrove productivity is annual litter fall, which is known to show a latitudinal gradient, being highest close to the equator (e.g., Twilley et al., 1992).Typical global average litterfall rates are in the order of 38 mol C m 2 year 1 (Twilley et al., 1992, Jennerjahn and Ittekkot, 2002).
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